First Bishops' War, 1639
The King rode for York in March 1639 to lead the campaign against the Scots in person. He raised a special levy of 6,000 foot and 1,000 horse, then gained another 4,000 troops by mobilising the Trained Bands of the northern border counties. He also revived the medieval practice of summoning his nobles to attend him in person, each accompanied by a troop of horsemen, which caused resentment amongst the nobility. Although by June the English army was 18,000 strong, it was mostly made up of raw conscripts. The Earl of Arundel, Earl-Marshal of England and Lord-General of the army, had no previous experience of war. His second-in-command, the Earl of Essex, was demoted in favour of one of the Queen's courtiers, the inexperienced Earl of Holland. Veteran soldiers like Sir Jacob Astley, commander of the infantry, despaired at the English army's lack of training and lack of supplies and equipment — many of the northern Trained Bands were armed with bows and arrows.
By contrast the 20,000-strong Army of the Covenant was highly-motivated and bolstered by professional, battle-hardened troops who had returned from Germany and Flanders to fight for Scotland and the Kirk. In a series of swift, concerted moves, the Covenanters seized ports and strongholds across Scotland. Alexander Leslie secured Edinburgh Castle, Lord Rothes seized the King's main arsenal and the Scottish Crown Jewels at Dalkeith, the Earl of Montrose drove the Royalist Marquis of Huntly out of Aberdeen. Leslie then marched his army towards the border with England. The English advance guard commanded by the Earl of Holland met them near Kelso. Outnumbered and overawed, Holland turned and fled back to the King's headquarters at Berwick. Negotiations with the Earl of Antrim to bring an army over from Ireland had broken down, so the King was obliged to sign the Pacification of Berwick on 19 June 1639. Both sides regarded this as little more than a temporary truce.
Second Bishops' War, 1640
Encouraged by the Earl of Stafford, King Charles decided to send a second force against the Scots in 1640. The Short Parliament had refused to grant funds for the war so the King secretly appealed for a loan from Spain, while the Queen appealed to her brother the King of France and even to the Pope. These appeals were in vain, however, and the King was left to his own devices. Strafford advised disbanding the unimpressive northern militia from the First Bishops' War and raising a new levy in the south. But these new southern levies were untrained and poorly-disciplined. Many deserted on the march to the north and others were prone to mutiny; two Catholic officers were lynched by their own men, who then dispersed.
By August 1640, the King's forces were assembled in Yorkshire and Northumberland, most of them poorly-armed, unpaid and underfed. They faced a Covenanter army 20,000 strong massed on the border. Alexander Leslie crossed the River Tweed and entered England on 20 August 1640, the same day that King Charles left London for York with the intention of leading his troops in person. Bypassing the well-defended town of Berwick, Leslie marched unopposed through Northumberland and arrived at the River Tyne on 27 August.
The Battle of Newburn: Lord Conway led a small force from Newcastle of 2,000 horse, 1,500 foot and 4 cannon. He hoped to prevent the Covenanters from crossing the Tyne at Newburn ford. Sir Jacob Astley brought up 2,000 reinforcements from Yorkshire. On 28 August, the English were still digging improvised fortifications at the ford when the Scots appeared on the north bank of the river. Leslie dismantled one of his light cannon and had it carried to the top of the tower of Newburn Church to bombard the English lines. The four English cannon returned fire. The first wave of Scots began to cross the ford at about 4 o'clock in the afternoon. After token resistance, the English infantry abandoned their fortifications and the Covenanters poured across the ford to take possession of the undefended river bank. Henry Wilmot, commander of the English cavalry, led a charge to try and drive them back but the Scots stood firm. The cavalry were routed, trampling and scattering what was left of the English infantry, most of whom fled in panic to Newcastle. Colonel Monck managed to retain control of his regiment and retreated in good order with the English artillery, supported by Astley and one or two professional cavalry officers.
Lord Conway decided that Newcastle could not be defended and withdrew to Durham. On 30 August the Covenanters arrived before Newcastle. General Leslie was astonished when the city surrendered to him without a shot being fired.
King Charles summoned a Great Council of Peers at York on 24 September which almost unanimously advised him to negotiate a truce with the Scots and to summon another Parliament. The Treaty of Ripon was duly signed on 14 October. Negotiations for a permanent settlement were to to be continued by a new Parliament in London. Meanwhile the Scottish army was to occupy Northumberland and Durham, exacting an indemnity of £850 a day from the English government for their quarter; furthermore the Scottish government was to be reimbursed for its expenses in prosecuting the war against England. In desperate need of money, Charles was obliged to summon the Long Parliament, which first assembled on 3 November 1640.